Maya Technology—Erick Traska

The Mayas evolved from a nomadic group into a complete civilization including an advanced comprehension in the fields of architecture, agriculture, commerce, and astronomy. These fields required some form of a numeric system in order to measure and regulate the trades. This numeric system was the foundation for their calendar system and their exploration of the cosmos. The Mayas had many inventions and creative aspects to the realms of mathematics, writing, astronomy, and architecture.

A basic piece of Maya technology is its writing system. Modern scholars agree that Mayan glyphs are one of only three writing systems in the ancient world to be invented independently. The Mayas evolved the only true written system native to the Americas. It is referred to as hieroglyphics, and although not related to the Egyptian written system, it is a similar combination of phonetic symbols and ideograms. It is the only writing system of the Pre-Columbian New World that can completely represent spoken language to the same degree as the written language of the Old World.

The Mayas were much revered for their advances in mathematics. The Mayas used a system that was different from most ancient numeric systems in that they did not depend on many different symbols. Their version was streamlined into only three symbols: the dot, the bar, and the zero. Using only three symbols seems challenging, but the ever clever Mayas devised a system of positioning the three symbols to portray all numbers and perform all the usual mathematic operations. The dot represents a unity (one), the bar represents the number five, and another symbol (usually clam-like) represents the zero. Similar to a present day tally system, you cannot use more than four dots in a row, as the next digit and corresponding symbol is five, or the bar. For numbers beyond the basic numbers in the Mayan system of one to nineteen, a positional system is used. The difference between the Mayan system and our own is that the Mayan system reads from top to bottom instead of left to right. It is also considered vigesimal, using a base number of twenty, instead of ten. The Mayan system of mathematics was well ahead of the curve. The zero was quite the feat for the progress of mathematics and was discovered by the Mayas at least six hundred years prior to its discovery in India.

The basis of the mathematical system helped the Mayas derive a calendar of remarkable accuracy and complexity. It is heralded as one of their greatest accomplishments. The precision of the calendar is derived from the fact that it is based on an uninterrupted, continuous count of days from a point of zero, which is set in 3114 BCE. The Mayan calendar uses three different dating systems in parallel: the Long Count, the Tzolkin, and the Haab; the Haab being the only system that has a relationship to the length of the year as we now know it, of 365 days. The Tzolkin calendar consists of 260 days and was most used by the people of the Maya world. It was used to regulate things such as agriculture, religious ceremonies, and family affairs. This calendar had good or bad luck associated with each day, and thus eventually became known as the “divinatory year” or the “divine calendar.” The Tzolkin day that corresponded to one’s birthday was believed to predestine the life of the Maya. It consisted of a combination of the numbers one through thirteen and had twenty names for the days, which were represented by glyphs. The cycle ended at thirteen and would start again at zero, with the day names recycling at twenty, creating a unique combination of names and numbers for 260 days. The Haab calendar was based on the revolution of the Earth around the Sun and is thus 365 days as we know it. However, the year was divided into eighteen Winal of twenty days each. Dates were written numerically one through nineteen with a corresponding Winal. The combination of the two calendars, the Tzolkin and Haab, created what was called the Calendar Round, which was 18,980 days or 52 years exactly, calculated by the lowest common multiple of both 260 and 365. The Long Count is rather simple, with each Kin being worth one day. When the kin reaches twenty, you start the count again from zero and add one to the Winal, and same for the Winal, Tun, Katun, and finally Baktun. When the Baktun reaches twenty, it is believed to be the start of a new era. The Long Count calendar is championed as more precise than the Julian calendar, revised in Europe in 1582.

With the foundation of a solid mathematical system and an accurate calendar, the Mayas were also well renowned for their astronomical studies. All of their observations were done with the human eye, since they never constructed any sort of a telescope. Even without the aid of telescopes, their predictions were alarmingly precise. A good example is that of their prediction of the Venus year. They calculated that it took 584 days, when in reality it takes 593.92, which is pretty close for roughing it. The Mayas took much interest in the sun and focused on the Zenial Passages, which were when the Sun crossed over the Mayan latitudes. The Maya even had a god to represent this position of the Sun, called the Diving God. One of the more astounding feats within Maya astronomy is its knowledge of Venus. It was the object of greatest interest for the Maya, and they knew it better than any civilization outside Mesoamerica. In Maya myth, Venus is the companion of the sun. Using their incredibly accurate calendar and mathematical calculation system, they were able to predict the coming revolutions and eclipses of Venus to an error of one day in 6,000 years. In addition to Venus, the Milky Way was much revered by the Mayas. Dubbing it the “World Tree,” they viewed it as the fountain of life itself and a mystic road along which souls walk into the Underworld.

One of the more amazing accomplishments of the Mayas is the combination of astronomy with architecture. Most of Maya architecture was rather unimpressive without the use of the basic technologies such as metal and the wheel, simply using manpower as a replacement. However, the design of the structures and their correspondence with their advanced calendar were impressive to say the least. A good example of their impressive integration of astronomy and architecture is one such building that created shadows that resembled large spiraling serpents during the equinoxes. This building is El Castillo, the step pyramid in Chichen Itza. Residing in the current Mexican state of Yucatán, El Castillo served as a temple to the god Kukulkan. Each of the pyramid’s four sides incorporate a broad, steep staircase consisting of ninety-one steps that ascend to the top platform. Four sides multiplied by ninety-one gives us 364 and when adding the top platform as the final step, the pyramid has one step for each of the 365 days of the year. It also has nine main platforms that are thought to represent the eighteen months of the Haab calendar, and fifty-two panels that represent the number of years for the Calendar Round to occur. Another notable characteristic of El Castillo is that when viewing the western face during the winter solstice, the sun appears to climb up the edge of the staircase until it arrives directly above the temple, momentarily pauses, and then begins its descent down the other side.

The Mayas were very reliant on their system of mathematics as a basis for advancement in these other fields of technology. The Mayas will forever be renowned for their advances in the calendar and their supreme accuracy, and will always be recognized for their achievements in writing, astronomy, and architectural feats.

Sources:

http://www.crystalinks.com/maya.html

http://www.webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-mayan.html

http://library.thinkquest.org/10098/mayan.htm

http://www.authenticmaya.com/index.htm

http://www.mayacalendar.com/f-undrstndng.html

http://www.world-mysteries.com/chichen_kukulcan.htm

All accessed April 2^nd, 2011

Photo 1:

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The Social Structure of the Maya—Alejandro Juarez

The Maya society was organized by a class system. At the top of the system was the ruling class filled with the wealthy and powerful elite, which included nobles and priests, all of who were headed by the King. The middle class consisted of government officials, merchants, artisans, and warriors. The lowest class held commoners, farmers, servants, and war captives. A main contributor to the structure of the Maya society was the intense devotion to their polytheistic religion. Maya religion helped set the foundation for the entire society by helping control the social class system. The majority of the labor came from the lower class, namely farmers and slaves. Farmers supplied the entire society with food, including maize, squash, avocados, beans, vanilla beans, cocoa beans, and tomatoes. The creation of temples and pyramids led the culture to rely heavily on the use of human labor. The King was believed to be semi-divine and, in some cases, a direct decedent of gods. This instilled a sense of divinity in his rule, making it easier for him to control the lower and middle class workers.

Another importance between the social structure and the religion was the elaborate ceremonies and rituals that the Mayas would perform. As a status symbol, the upper-class society would distort the heads of their children by using a press to elongate the skulls before they hardened. Lavish ceremonies took place to show homage to the gods. Sacrifices would be made to represent the transferring of power between kings. Kings would perform a ceremony called bloodletting in which they would take their own blood as a sacrifice because ruling class blood was considered sacred. They would also sacrifice slaves, enemy worriers, and women. Many of the people chosen to be sacrificed would do so willingly because of how sacred it was.

Finally, the social structure and the religion of the Mayas affected the architecture of the society. Gigantic pyramids and temples were built with stone tablets that averaged ten tons. Chichén Itzá was one of the large ceremonial complexes used for rituals, events, and festivals. Soon after the classical period, the City became the capital of Yucatán Maya.

Sources:

“Maya” Guatemala and Belize http://www.naomistolow.com/travelogue/maya.html April 4 2011 WEB

Sterns, Peter N. World History in Brief Upper Saddle NJ. Pearson, 2010

Photo:

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Top Ten Random Facts About the Maya—Brandon Young

“Top Ten Random Facts About the Maya”

10. The Calendar Does Not Predict the End of the World

The Maya don’t have just one calendar; they have several calendars, which are often interlocked. The calendar associated with the end of the world myth is the long count calendar. In Mayan legend we are living in the Fourth world, and in December 2012 we will reach the next creation cycle.

9. The Sacrificial Stone had a Bump

During human sacrifices, the person being sacrificed would lie on his/her back on the altar. There was a bump on the altar, which pushed the person’s chest up, making it easier to remove the heart. These sacrifices and other offerings were then thrown into sinkholes.

8. The Purpose of the Ball Court

The Maya religion and ceremony included sport in its activities. The game represented the battle between light and dark. Two teams would compete to get a ball through a hoop hanging on a tall vertical surface. The winners would be showered with praise and jewels; however, the losers would be sacrificed.

7. Painkillers

The Maya people often used hallucinogenic drugs for religious purposes; however, these were also used as painkillers. Peyote, mushrooms, and other herbs were some of the more commonly used. Enemas were used for faster absorption; there are many statues depicting this.

6. Mayans Were Excellent Doctors

In Maya society, the men who practiced medicine were called shamans, and acted as a medium between the physical and spiritual world. It was essential that the shaman had vast medical knowledge, so they were given an excellent education. They stitched wounds with human hair, reset fractures, made prostheses with jade and turquoise, and even filled teeth with iron pyrite.

5. Five Unlucky Days

The Haab, or civil calendar, consisted of eighteen “months” with twenty days each, followed by an extra five days called Uayeb. The Uayeb were seen as unlucky and were called “the days without names” or “the days without souls,” and were days of prayer and mourning. It was thought that anyone born on these days would have a miserable life.

4. Domesticated Animals

The Maya society had very few domesticated animals. The two most common were hairless dogs and turkeys. The dogs would be used as hunting companions and protection. The turkeys were raised, perhaps with other fowl, such as doves and ducks, as a food source.

3. Chocolate Was Currency

Cacao, or chocolate as we know it today, first originated in Mayan culture. The Maya believed that cacao came directly from the gods, and because it was so revered, could only be drunk from gold cups, which were discarded after one use. Mayans used spices and peppers to flavor their drinks. Because cacao was so highly regarded, it was even used among the people as a form of currency.

2. Flat Foreheads Were Beautiful

In Maya society, a flat, slanted forehead was considered beautiful. In order to achieve this look, boards were tied to a baby’s forehead for an extended period, causing the skull to shape the in the desired way.

1. Crossed Eyes Were Even More Beautiful

The Mayan people also considered crossed eyes beautiful. Individuals would tie a stick with dangling objects in front of their eyes in order to create the crossed eye look that they so desired.

Photo:

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Maya Economics - Jessica Cansler

An important part of Maya economics can be traced back to their ability to participate in long distance trade among other Mesoamerican cultures such as the Teotihuacan and Zapotecs, and other groups located along the gulf coast of Mexico, the Carribean Islands and in Columbia. Along with the development of the trade routes, one can also see the emergence of a middle class among the Mayas during the Classic Period, which is believed to have been brought upon by the intermediate occupations, such as skilled artisans and craftsman who helped with traded goods. Some of the most important goods that were traded included, salt, obsidian, jade, cacao, cotton, vanilla and Quetzal feathers.

            Another important part of Maya economics was their agriculture. For Mayas, agriculture was not only for their own food purposes, but for trade as well. The area that the Mayas inhabited consisted mostly of rainforest. As there is rapid growth in the rainforest, the nutrients in the soil are quickly depleted, making it unsuitable for growing crops. To compensate for this inadequacy of the land, the Mayas used a slash and burn method of agriculture that entails burning the plants and trees in order to later use them for fertilizer and land cultivation. This process is very time consuming as it was estimated to take up to seven years for proper cultivation, and the land was usually only good for two to four years. This process also takes up notable space, which means it took quite a bit of land to be able to support a Maya family. It is estimated that it could take up to seventy acres to support a family of five.

            Mayas’ economic way of life is suspected to have fallen due mostly to warfare among other cultures. One recorded account is with the Olmec whom the Mayas defeated. Another belief holds that the fall of the Mayas may have been due to a combination of drought and disease with raging fevers. It is estimated that about 80-90 percent of the population may have been decimated through disease alone.

                                                                        

     

http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_trade_and_economy.htm

http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAMRCA/MAYAS.HTM

Hooker, Richard. The Mayas. 1996.

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Maya Warfare Stephen Smith

What was once thought to be a peaceful, utopian society is now largely known to have been a violent, politically volatile culture.  Motivated by spiritual and political differences as well as a desire to obtain slaves, it is likely that separate Maya groups fought for the entirety of their existence.  These disputes, coupled with clashes over natural resources aided in the decline of a once great civilization.

With the exception of professional guards serving year round, Classic Era Mayas had no standing armies. Instead they utilized local militias led by nobility.  The ruler of a particular city-state was the War Captain.  Leading the warriors into battle was the Nacom, a hereditary war chief.

The Classic Maya’s arsenal would be considered vast even by today’s standards.  The use of the bow and arrow, spear, dagger and war club was common.  The dagger and war club were close range “shock weapons” designed for maximum damage.  It is believed that these were used sparingly to enable Mayas to capture enemy slaves meant for labor and eventual sacrifice.  The famous, Atlatl was a remarkable improvement of the spear. Using a leather strap notched into the spear it allowed the thrower to catapult the spear aiding in accuracy and distance.  These warriors would likely have worn armor made of light cotton and carried shields of pulled animal hide.  Wooden helmets were employed and in certain cases even stone helmets.  Tactically, use of guerilla warfare was not uncommon.  Thorny entanglements, deadfalls, and wooden palisades were all employed by small bands of soldiers.  What were more impressive were their methods of command and control, using small wooden drums and whistles to dictate battlefield movement.  This was the ancient precursor to the battlefield radio communication of modern armies.

The warfare of Classic Mayas was typically a series of small engagements by raiding parties on rival city-states.  However, there are recorded events of all-out wars in the written record, typically ending with the capture of the King of a rival city-state. Known as “star wars”, these clashes were set to coincide with astronomical events; more specifically the arrival of the “Morning Star”, Venus.  The Mayas considered this the ideal time to wage war.  These wars were recorded in stone and depict fallen kings and bloody battles.  Perhaps the most known of these “star wars” took place between rival city-states Tikal and Caracol around 562 AD.  Tikal was once known as the center of the Maya civilization and a powerful city. In 556 AD, Tikal attacked Caracol in an “axe war”, meant to destroy, but not timed with astronomical events. However, with the help of the Tikal’s bitter rival, Calkmul, the Caracol returned six years later and decimated the Tikal, sending them into a crushing 130 year silence. This silence is known in the record as the “Hiatus.”

As recent discoveries have shown, the Mayas, specifically in the Classic Era, were in a constant state flux. Constantly engaging in smaller battles and the occasional war were among many factors that lead to their ultimate decline.  Whether for spiritual, political or simple personal motivations, we now know that violence personified Classic Maya culture as much as the famed Maya Calendar.  

(photo)http://www.objectlessons.org.uk/default.asp?Document=200.0050.0020&SearchPref=s&SearchParam=hunting&Image=AUS881XE4858

(sources)

The Lords of Tikal- Rulers of Ancient Maya- by Peter D. Harrison https://bl2prd0103.outlook.com/owa/redir.aspx?C=3815d117c0ba422ca726ebe65e560ff2&URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.mayarealm.com%2fstarwars.html

The Mayans, Climate Change, and Conflict. by Mathew Markowitz https://bl2prd0103.outlook.com/owa/redir.aspx?C=3815d117c0ba422ca726ebe65e560ff2&URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww1.american.edu%2fted%2fice%2fmaya.htm

Classic Maya Warfare and Settlement Archaeology at Caracol, Belize-by Diane Z. Chase and Arlen F. Chase

Maya Religion (200AD-900AD) Stephanie Valencia

The Mayas during the classic period embraced a wide variety of beliefs and practices.  For starters, the Mayas believed that the universe had been destroyed and created again multiple times.  Mayas also adhered to the belief that each cycle lasted about 5000 years, and that the cycles of creation and destruction would continue forever.   We are said to be nearing the end of a 5000 year cycle. Yet with each end, a new creation appears to resemble the old universe.  The Mayas also had one of the most complex calendars of their time.  Their calendar integrated a 365-day solar year cycle, a 584-day Venus movement cycle, and even a 260-day ritual year cycle along with many more. 

Religion played a huge role in the lives of the Mayas and of their existence.  They were a polytheistic community that worshiped many gods.  Their rituals and ceremonies were extravagant yet crucial to their survival. Their deities were manifested in many forms and shapes according to what their responsibilities were. Two of their highly acclaimed gods were Kinish Ahau, the sun god and Chac, the rain god.  Many rituals were performed to honor them, as well as to honor many more gods.  A ritual performed for divine procreation of the cosmos entailed the cutting of the foreskin of kings’ and queens’ genitalia.  The blood was then poured on a paper and burned to ensure balance of the cosmos.

For Mayas, balance was very important. They believed in a duality concept maintaining that one part of us balanced the other.  In order to feel a connection and balance with the gods, Mayas took many ritual baths and consumed hallucinogenic drugs.  They made many sacrifices to the gods, sometimes including human sacrifice.   Mayas also built temples to honor their gods.  They would build alters and bring food and offerings to these temples in return to get favor from the gods.  Religion was a way of life for the Mayas.  They revolved their lives around the ritual calendars and were in constant attempt to please and honor their gods. 

                                                                       

                                                                        Chac- god of rain

(sources)

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(photo) http://projectmaya.wikispaces.com/Mayan+Gods